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- **Direct democracy**: Citizens vote on policy directly (Swiss referenda) - **Representative democracy**: Elected officials make decisions (most modern states) - **Deliberative democracy (Habermas)**: Legitimacy through public deliberation - **Agonistic democracy (Mouffe)**: Conflict is constitutiv...

- **Freedom House**: "Free," "Partly Free," "Not Free" ratings; civil liberties and political rights; widely used but criticized for Western bias - **V-Dem (Varieties of Democracy)**: Most comprehensive; multiple dimensions — electoral, liberal, participatory, deliberative, egalitarian - **Polity V*...

- **Direct democracy argument**: More legitimate; citizens decide for themselves; reduces elite capture; Swiss model works - **Representative democracy argument**: Scale requires delegation; citizens lack time/expertise; deliberation quality higher in smaller bodies - **Referendum problems**: Binary...

- Treating ideal types (Weber) as empirical descriptions rather than analytical tools - Example: Treating "democracy" as binary rather than as spectrum; "this country is not a democracy" when it's a flawed democracy - Why it's problematic: Ideal types are useful for analysis but don't perfectly desc...

- **Democratic argument**: Self-governance; legitimacy; epistemic diversity - **Technocratic argument**: Complex problems need expert solutions; voter ignorance - **Synthesis**: Deliberative democracy with informed citizens; epistocratic elements

- Dahl, Robert. *Polyarchy* (1971) — conditions for democracy - Huntington, Samuel. *The Third Wave* (1991) — democratization - Sartori, Giovanni. *Parties and Party Systems* (1976) — party system typology - Lijphart, Arend. *Patterns of Democracy* (1999) — majoritarian vs consensus democracy - Levi...

- **Democratic backsliding**: Gradual erosion of democratic institutions and norms by elected leaders, as opposed to sudden coup - **Competitive authoritarianism (Levitsky & Way)**: Elections exist but are unfair; opposition can compete but is systematically disadvantaged - **Illiberal democracy (Za...

- Treating one country's political system as the norm and judging others as deviant - Example: Measuring Japanese democracy against American standards; treating Westminster system as "normal" parliament - Why it's wrong: Multiple valid forms of democracy exist; each must be understood in context --...

- **Democratic socialism**: Social ownership through democratic means; welfare state; worker cooperatives - **Marxism-Leninism**: Vanguard party; revolutionary seizure of state; central planning - **Social democracy**: Regulated capitalism; strong welfare state; mixed economy - **Libertarian sociali...

- **Civil society**: Independent organizations, media, judiciary as bulwarks - **Institutional design**: Strong constitutions; independent judiciary; federalism; proportional representation - **International pressure**: EU conditionality; human rights monitoring; democratic solidarity - **Political ...

- **Deliberative democracy**: Informed public discussion before decision - **Participatory budgeting**: Direct citizen allocation of resources - **Citizens' assemblies**: Randomly selected deliberative bodies - **Workplace democracy**: Extending democratic principles to economic life

- **Definition**: Analytical constructs that exaggerate certain features to clarify analysis; no real case perfectly matches - **Purpose**: Comparison and classification; not description of reality - **Examples**: "Bureaucracy," "capitalism," "democracy" — all ideal types; reality is always messier ...

- **Cleisthenes' reforms (508 BCE)**: Reorganized citizenry by demes rather than kinship; created Council of 500 by lot - **Direct democracy**: Citizens voted directly on laws in Assembly (ekklesia); ~6,000 quorum from ~30,000 eligible - **Sortition**: Officials chosen by lot to prevent oligarchy; r...

- **Party government**: Hara Takashi (first commoner PM, 1918); Kato Takaaki (universal male suffrage, 1925); "Taisho Democracy" as period of democratic expansion - **Social movements**: Rice riots (1918); labor unions growing; Suiheisha (Burakumin liberation, 1922); Korean independence movement (Ma...

- **Indian independence (1947)**: Congress Party; Gandhi's nonviolence; Nehru's secular democracy; Jinnah and partition; communal violence (1-2 million deaths, 15 million displaced) - **Pakistan**: Created as Muslim homeland; East-West Pakistan tensions; Bangladesh War of Independence (1971); cyclic...

- **For**: Self-determination; epistemic value (Condorcet); instrumental value - **Against**: Tyranny of majority; voter ignorance (epistocracy argument); Arrow's impossibility theorem - **Nuance**: Democracy as ideal vs actually existing democracies

- **Wu wei (無為)**: Non-forced action; acting in harmony with natural flow; not imposing artificial order - **Laozi/Tao Te Ching**: "The Tao that can be spoken is not the eternal Tao"; simplicity; humility; skepticism of artificial governance - **Political implications**: Minimal government intervent...

- **LINE dominance**: Primary messaging platform; different ecosystem than US/European social media landscape - **Anonymous culture**: 2ch/5ch tradition; less personal accountability; different harassment dynamics - **Political use**: Relatively less social media-driven politics than US; but increas...

- Inequality undermines democracy; reduces social mobility; harms health (Wilkinson & Pickett); violates fairness; progressive taxation; strengthening labor rights; universal basic services - Sources: Piketty, *Capital in the Twenty-First Century* (2014); Stiglitz, *The Price of Inequality* (2012); ...

- **Definition**: Humans have limited information, cognitive capacity, and time; "satisfice" rather than optimize - **Implications for democracy**: Voters cannot process all relevant information; use heuristics (party label, endorsements, appearance) - **Implications for policy**: Policymakers also ...