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- **Welfarism**: Utility, happiness, preference satisfaction - **Resourcism (Rawls, Dworkin)**: Primary goods, resources - **Capabilities (Sen, Nussbaum)**: Real freedoms to achieve valuable functionings - **Recognition (Honneth, Fraser)**: Social esteem, cultural respect

- **Procedural**: Fair rules lead to just outcomes (Hayek, Nozick) - **Substantive**: Outcomes themselves must meet criteria of fairness (Rawls) - **Political implication**: Libertarians emphasize procedure; egalitarians emphasize outcomes

- Steven Lukes, *Power: A Radical View* (1974); Antonio Gramsci, *Prison Notebooks* (1929–35); Michel Foucault, *Discipline and Punish* (1975); Pierre Bourdieu, *Distinction* (1979). - John Rawls, *A Theory of Justice* (1971); Robert Nozick, *Anarchy, State, and Utopia* (1974); Amartya Sen, *The Ide...

| Lens (Theme) | Core question it asks | Key thinkers | Characteristic blind spot | |---|---|---|---| | Power (T1) | Who dominates, how, and through what (economic/political/cultural)? | Weber, Lukes, Gramsci, Foucault | Can see power everywhere, agency nowhere | | Justice (T2) | What should be dist...

- **Autonomy line**: persuasion that engages reason respects autonomy; manipulation that bypasses or exploits reason (subliminal cues, exploited bias, deception) violates it (cf. Kantian respect for persons; `ethics_applied.md`). - **Bullshit (Frankfurt, *On Bullshit*)**: indifference to truth — dis...

- Harry Frankfurt, *On Bullshit* (2005); John Rawls, *Political Liberalism* (1993) — public reason; Bryan Caplan, the ideological Turing test (2011).

- **Scenario**: Choose principles of justice behind a "veil of ignorance" — not knowing your race, class, gender, abilities, values - **Result**: Rational agents would choose equal basic liberties + inequality only if it benefits the worst-off (difference principle) - **Political application**: Most...

- **Original position**: Choose principles of justice behind a "veil of ignorance" - **Two principles**: (1) Equal basic liberties; (2) Social/economic inequalities arranged to benefit the least advantaged (difference principle) - **Overlapping consensus**: Political liberalism can unite diverse com...

- Rawls, John. *A Theory of Justice* (1971) - Nozick, Robert. *Anarchy, State, and Utopia* (1974) - Walzer, Michael. *Just and Unjust Wars* (1977) - MacIntyre, Alasdair. *After Virtue* (1981) - Nussbaum, Martha. *Creating Capabilities* (2011) - Singer, Peter. *Practical Ethics* (1979) - Sandel, Mich...

- **Core**: Individual rights, rule of law, limited government, consent of governed - **Classical liberalism**: Emphasis on negative liberty, property rights, minimal state - **Social liberalism**: Positive liberty requires state provision of education, healthcare, safety net - **Neoliberalism**: Ma...

#### Utilitarianism - **Question**: Which action produces the greatest good for the greatest number? - **Strengths**: Clear decision procedure; considers consequences; democratic in treating all interests equally - **Weaknesses**: Can justify injustice to minorities; difficulty measuring/comparing u...

- Hart, H.L.A. *The Concept of Law* (1961) — legal positivism's foundational text - Dworkin, Ronald. *Taking Rights Seriously* (1977) — rights as trumps; law as integrity - Rawls, John. *A Theory of Justice* (1971) — justice framework applicable to constitutional design - Sunstein, Cass. *The Partia...

Logic of *belief* (above) is completed by logic of *choice* — central to policy reasoning. - **Expected utility**: rational choice maximizes Σ P(outcome)·U(outcome). Decision under **risk** (probabilities known) vs. **uncertainty** (unknown). - **Decision rules under uncertainty**: *maximin* (Rawls...